Events in Indian, Pakistani nuclear development

Events in Indian, Pakistani nuclear development:

India

--1948: India establishes an Atomic Energy Commission for exploration for uranium ore.

--1953: President Eisenhower launches ``Atoms for Peace'' program, offering access to exchange atomic technology for pledges to use it for civilian use, not weapons.

--1954: Head of India's AEC, rejects safeguards, oversight by new International Atomic Energy Agency.

--1956: India completes negotiations to build 40 megawatt ``Canadian-Indian Reactor, U.S.'' research reactor. United States supplies heavy water, used to control nuclear fission.

--1958: India begins designing and acquiring equipment for its own Trombay plutonium reprocessing facility, giving the nation a dual-use capability that could lead to atomic weapons.

--1959: U.S. trains Indian scientists in reprocessing, handling plutonium.

--1963: Two 210-megawatt boiling-water reactors are ordered for the Tarapur Atomic Power Station from General Electric. United States and India agree plutonium from India's reactors will not be used for research for atomic weapons or for military purposes.

--1964: First plutonium reprocessing plant operates at Trombay.

--1965: Chairman of India's AEC proposes subterranean nuclear explosion project. China, one of five declared nuclear states, detonates first atomic explosive device. U.S. withdraws military aid from India after the India-Pakistan War.

--1966: India declares it can produce nuclear weapons within 18 months.

--1968: Non-Proliferation Treaty completed. India refuses to sign.

--1969: France agrees to help India develop breeder reactors.

--1974: India tests a device of up to 15 kilotons and calls the test a ``peaceful nuclear explosion.'' Canada suspends nuclear cooperation. The United States allows continued supply of nuclear fuel, but later cuts it off.

--1976: Soviet Union assumes role of India's main supplier of heavy water. Canada formally halts nuclear cooperation.

--Early 1980s: India acquires and develops centrifuge technology, builds uranium enrichment plants at Trombay and Mysore.

--1991: India enters agreement with Pakistan prohibiting attacks on each other's nuclear installations, a measure to ease tensions.

--1992: Rare Metals Plant at Mysore begins producing enriched uranium. Nuclear Suppliers Group, organization of nations with nuclear materials, stops supplying India.

--1997: India announces development of supercomputer technology that can be used to test nuclear-weapon designs. Fuel reprocessing plant at Kalpakkam, a large-scale plutonium separation facility, completes ``cold commissioning'' in last phase of pre-operating trials.

--1998: India announces plans to sign deal with Russia for two 1,000 megawatt nuclear reactors.

--May 11-13: India conducts five underground nuclear tests, declares itself a nuclear state.

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Pakistan

--1972: Following its third war with India, Pakistan secretly decides to start nuclear weapons program to match India's developing capability. Canada supplies reactor for the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant, heavy water and heavy-water production facility.

--1974: Western suppliers embargo nuclear exports to Pakistan after India's first test of a nuclear device.

--1975: Purchasing of components and technology for Kahuta uranium-enrichment centrifuge facility begins after return of Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, German-trained metallurgist who takes over nuclear program.

--1976: Canada stops supplying nuclear fuel for Karachi.

--1977: German seller provides vacuum pumps, equipment for uranium enrichment. Britain sells Pakistan 30 high-frequency inverters for controlling centrifuge speeds. United States halts economic and military aid over Pakistan's nuclear-weapons program.

--1978: France cancels deal to supply plutonium reprocessing plant at Chasma.

--1979: United States imposes economic sanctions after Pakistan is caught importing equipment for uranium enrichment plant at Kahuta.

--1981: Smuggler arrested at U.S. airport while attempting to ship two tons of zirconium to Pakistan. Nevertheless, Reagan administration lifts sanctions and begins generous military and financial aid because of Pakistani help to Afghan rebels battling Soviets.

--1983: China reportedly supplies Pakistan with bomb design. U.S. intelligence believes Pakistani centrifuge program intended to produce material for nuclear weapons.

--1985: Congress passes Pressler amendment, requiring economic sanctions unless White House certifies that Pakistan is not embarked on nuclear weapons program. Islamabad is certified every year until 1990.

--1986: Pakistan, China sign pact on peaceful use of nuclear energy, including design, construction, operation of reactors.

--1987: Pakistan acquires tritium purification and production facility from West Germany.

--1989: A 27-kilowatt research reactor is built with Chinese help and comes under international monitoring.

--1990: Fearing new war with India, Pakistan makes cores for several nuclear weapons. Bush administration, under Pressler amendment, imposes economic, military sanctions against Pakistan.

--1991: Pakistan puts ceiling on size of its weapons-grade uranium stockpile. It enters into agreement with India, prohibiting the two states from attacking each other's nuclear installations.

--1993: Report by the Stockholm International Peace and Research Institute says about 14,000 uranium-enrichment centrifuges installed in Pakistan. German customs officials seize about 1,000 gas centrifuges bound for Pakistan.

--1996: Pakistan buys 5,000 ring magnets from China to be used in gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment. China tells U.S. government it will stop helping Pakistan's unsafeguarded nuclear facilities. Islamabad completes 40-megawatt heavy-water reactor that, once operational, could provide the first source of plutonium-bearing spent fuel free from international inspections.

--1998: Reacting to fresh nuclear testing by India, Pakistan conducts its own atomic explosions.